The medieval period also saw the use of red color in illuminated manuscripts, stained glass, and religious art. Sumptuary laws often regulated the use of certain colors, restricting them to specific classes or roles.

Synthetic alternatives began to appear as early as the 12th century, and by the 15th century, a new red began to take hold. Carmine, with its deep crimson tones, can be seen among the palettes of Rembrandt, Vermeer, Rubens, and Velázquez. Made from cochineal bugs, when dried and crushed they produced a vivid red hue.

During these centuries, painters were skilled in basic chemistry and science as well as the arts. They often experimented with new ideas in much the same way scientists do in their laboratories. The Flemish artist Jan van Eyck is known for finding a new way of making pigments for the canvas. Instead of using egg tempera as a medium, he had the idea of using oil as a binder, thus creating oil paint. This new style of painting was quickly accepted by Van Eyck's contemporaries. His innovative use of oil paint and attention to detail influenced many artists who followed, both in the Netherlands and across Europe, especially Italy. Van Eyck's works had a profound impact on the Northern Renaissance.

The ”Portrait of a Man” by Jan van Eyck (on left page) is one of the most famous examples of works with red color. He created this work around 1433. This oil painting is notable for its exquisite detail, use of light, and innovative techniques. In the hierarchy of colored cloth, he gave scarlet a high rank. Giorgio Vasari wrote in the early 1600s that Jan van Eyck invented the ‘secret’ of oil paint!

In 1521, Albrecht Dürer created the artwork ‘St. Jerome’  (in the next page) as a commission for a Portuguese merchant, Rodrigo Fernandes. This painting embodies the Renaissance ideals of humanism, blending classical knowledge with Christian spirituality. It celebrates the intellectual rigor and piety of St. Jerome, presenting him as a model of scholarly devotion and spiritual reflection. A strong contrast between the green background and the red clothing creates a frame that highlights the effect of light and the pictorial material on the aged flesh tones. The prominence given in the foreground to the books and the skull helps the painter impart to the depiction of the Doctor of the Church a character of "Memento mori" or "Vanitas," a theme closely related to the thoughts of Erasmus of Rotterdam.

Albrecht Dürer's paintings showed the beauty of natural landscapes depicted in precise, attentive detail, often with no specific subject matter or religious theme. Dürer was also one of the first artists to use watercolors in their modern sense. Another innovative technique was introduced at the same time by Johann Gutenberg, who developed movable wooden blocks that were the forerunner of the printing press.

Caravaggio’s "Saint Jerome Writing" masterfully uses color, especially red. The red ochre robe spirals around Saint Jerome, creating movement and drawing the viewer's eye to the center, contrasting with the lighter reds in his face and hands. Caravaggio’s use of chiaroscuro (light-dark) adds a dramatic, cinematic quality to the painting.

Martin Luther was the seminal figure of the Protestant Reformation, which began on 31 October 1517 with the publication of his Ninety-five Theses. In 1521, Luther was excommunicated by Pope Leo X and condemned by the Holy Roman Empire at the Diet of Worms, which banned citizens from defending his ideas. Despite being declared an outlaw, Luther survived due to the protection of Frederick the Wise, the Elector of Saxony, who safeguarded him during the early years of the Reformation.

The Protestant Reformation in Switzerland gained momentum in the 1520s, led by Huldrych Zwingli. After meeting Luther at the Colloquy of Marburg in 1529, Zwingli focused on predestination, later publishing his sermon as *De providentia* (On Providence). Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531) and Peter Martyr Vermigli (1499-1562) were key theologians shaping early Reformed theology, representing different strains within the tradition.

Supported by magistrate Mark Reust and the people of Zürich, the movement brought significant changes to civil and state matters in Zürich and other cantons. However, seven cantons remained Catholic, leading to the Wars of Kappel. After the Catholic victory in 1531, they implemented Counter-Reformation policies. This schism paralyzed internal politics and common foreign policy until the 18th century.

Following the Reformation, the impact extended to the arts, shaping the focus of Zurich artists primarily towards portraiture until the late 18th century. During the 16th century, artists such as Hans Asper and Samuel Hofmann created dignified portraits of the city's rulers, reflecting the cultural and political transformations of the era.

In the case of Hans Asper's purported portrait of Pietro Vermigli from 1560, we observe Vermigli holding a red book titled "Predestination and Justification." Vermigli's eloquence in debate and his adeptness in expounding Reformation doctrines earned him recognition from bishops and monarchs, while captivating the hearts and minds of ordinary Christians across Europe during the 16th century. His commitment to advancing the ideals of the Reformation and his controversial viewpoints, which once nearly led to a duel, continue to provoke scholarly study, inspiration, and debate in modern times.

In the 16th century, red was symbolically worn by popes and cardinals to signify theological significance and luxury. However, Martin Luther, the instigator of the Protestant Reformation, criticized this practice, referring to the Pope in 1520 as the ‘red whore of Babylon’ in his condemnations of the Catholic Church's misdeeds. Red also symbolizes Christ's blood in the color symbolism of the time. Pope Innocent IV mandated that cardinals wear red hats as symbols of their faith's martyrdom.

El Greco's notable 1600 painting, "Portrait of Fernando Niño de Guevara," exemplifies his unique Renaissance style and his skill in capturing the character and status of his subjects. The meticulous attention to detail in the cardinal's red robes and square cap (biretta) demonstrates El Greco's mastery in portraying textures and the richness of fabric. The use of red symbolizes the cardinal's rank and affiliation with the Catholic Church. This painting showcases El Greco's exceptional ability to blend realism with his distinctive Mannerist style, capturing both the physical likeness and the psychological depth of his subject. It stands as a significant example of El Greco's impact on Renaissance art and his influence in depicting influential figures of his era.

When the Swiss artist Henry Fuseli exhibited the first version of "The Nightmare" in London in 1781, it caused a scandal. Fascinated by the boundaries between reality and imagination, Fuseli painted several versions of this theme. In the painting, the woman's pale complexion contrasts sharply with the darker reds, yellows, and ochres of the background. Red velvet curtains drape behind the bed, enhancing the dramatic atmosphere. Fuseli used chiaroscuro to create strong contrasts between light and shade, further emphasizing the surreal and eerie quality of the scene. His work delves into the border regions of consciousness, exploring the spaces between reality and imagination.

Henry Fuseli considered himself a history painter, drawing his subjects primarily from literature, especially Milton and Shakespeare. A notable example is his painting "Macbeth" (Shakespeare, Macbeth, Act 1, Scene 3). Fuseli anticipated key motifs of Romanticism and the literary movement Sturm und Drang, and he had a significant influence on both classicism and romanticism. Although Goethe never met Fuseli, they had mutual friends. The painter remained an enigma to the poet, who oscillated between fascination and aversion. Goethe admired Fuseli's force and energy but was unsettled by the mannered and exalted qualities in his art, always finding it compelling.

Fuseli's depictions of emotions and passions were often melodramatic, sometimes wistful, always deliberate, but never restrained. These themes fascinated not only the artists and writers of his time but also the scientific community, all of whom were exploring the darker aspects of human experience. His work delved into the realms of the unfathomable and the uncanny. Contemporary critics were shocked by the overt sexuality in his paintings, which some scholars now interpret as anticipating Carl Jung ideas about the unconscious.

The Swiss flag is mostly red in color! The flag features a white cross on a red background. It is a globally recognized symbol of Switzerland. Its design, dating back to the 14th century, has represented Swiss soldiers. In 1848, with the adoption of a new constitution and the establishment of a federal republic, this emblem became the official national flag. Its unique square shape sets it apart from other flags. The red and white colors symbolize neutrality, independence, and peaceful coexistence among Switzerland's diverse cantons. This flag reflects the country's long-standing commitment to democracy, freedom, and neutrality.

In the 19th century, Swiss art flourished, particularly through the works of Albert Anker, a prominent genre painter. Anker's art expressed psychological states and moods, aligning with European trends of the time. Landscape painters Rudolf Koller and Robert Zünd, along with symbolist artists Arnold Böcklin and Albert Welti, were also noteworthy. Böcklin, famous for his "Isle of the Dead" series, inspired many late-Romantic composers.

Arnold Böcklin’s, a 1898 painting "Plague," housed in the Kunstmuseum Basel, exemplifies his preoccupation with themes of war, pestilence, and death. The artwork depicts Death riding a bat-like creature through a medieval town, rendered mainly in pale green, black, and dull browns, evoking decay and despair. A striking red cloth on a woman in the foreground symbolizes human suffering amidst death. The drama intensifies with a white-robed figure, representing purity, lying ahead of the encroaching shadow of Death, highlighting the relentless advance of mortality.

In the early 20th century, Expressionist artists like Edvard Munch and Egon Schiele used red to convey intense emotions and psychological states. The bold use of red in Munch's "The Scream" underscores the painting's emotional turmoil.

Henri Matisse's "The Red Studio" (1911) exemplifies his use of red to create a vibrant, cohesive space that immerses the viewer in the artist's creative world. The dominant red color covers almost the entire canvas, creating a flat, expansive surface. The miniature representations of his works within the painting form a meta-narrative—a painting within a painting. "The Red Studio" is a landmark in modernist painting, reflecting Matisse's shift from traditional perspective and modeling towards a more abstract and expressive use of color and form. The overwhelming red can symbolize warmth, passion, or creativity, potentially reflecting Matisse's emotional state or the studio's atmosphere.

During the same period, the October Revolution in Russia saw the red color of the Russian flag symbolize revolution. In the Russian avant-garde, red was used as a social and political expression. Avant-garde artists redefined art's formal means, creating new aesthetics. A notable example is El Lissitzky's 1919 work "Beat the Whites with the Red Wedge," symbolizing societal transition. This artwork galvanizes Bolshevik forces (red) and introduces a new visual language based on abstract geometrical shapes, typography, and color.

Ferdinand Hodler and Giovanni Segantini, key figures in early modern Swiss painting, are celebrated for their outstanding landscapes, moving beyond allegorical symbolism to develop fundamentally new formulations of painting. In the 20th century, the Art Nouveau style of Augusto Giacometti and Félix Vallotton followed.

Dada, an avant-garde art movement of the early 20th century, originated in Switzerland during World War I. It rejected traditional artistic norms, embracing absurdity, spontaneity, and anti-war sentiments. The Dada movement began in Zurich in 1916 at the Cabaret Voltaire, founded by Hugo Ball and Emmy Hennings. This venue became a hub for artists, writers, and performers challenging conventional aesthetics and political ideologies. Hugo Ball is renowned for his sound poetry and performances, while Tristan Tzara, a Romanian poet and performer, emerged as a prominent voice, spreading Dada principles beyond Zurich. Although short-lived, Dada profoundly influenced modern art, paving the way for later avant-garde movements like Surrealism and significantly impacting contemporary art practices.

Mark Rothko's mastery of red, as seen in pieces like "Untitled (Red), 1956," harnesses the profound power of color fields to evoke intense emotional responses. His expansive canvases transcend mere visual appeal, resonating deeply on a spiritual level. Red, known for its ability to stir emotions ranging from warmth and passion to anger and intensity, becomes a conduit for Rothko, tapping into these primal responses.

Alberto Giacometti, the Swiss sculptor and painter, similarly employs red in works such as "The Artist's Mother" (1950) and "Portrait of Jean Genet" (1955) to underscore emotional intensity. Through strategic contrasts of light and shadow, Giacometti imbues his figures with psychological depth, where red plays a crucial role in highlighting dramatic interactions.

Anish Kapoor succinctly captures the essence of red: "It’s the colour of the interior of our bodies. Red is the centre."

Paul Klee believed that "Color is the place where our brain and the universe meet." Klee frequently used red to evoke powerful emotions, whether conveying passion, intensity, or warmth. In iconic works like "Red Balloon" (1922), red dominates, infusing a sense of playfulness and whimsy into the composition. In "Fire in the Evening" (1929), Klee's use of red hues mirrors the warmth and radiance of a sunset, deepening the overall mood and atmosphere of the piece.